Lute, Sword, Snake, and Parasol—The Formation of the Standard Iconography of the Four Heavenly Kings in Chinese Buddhist Art

The Four Heavenly Kings, Sida Tianwang 四大天王, are the guardians of four quarters world in Buddhism. They among most frequently represented protective deities Buddhist art across different traditions. In their standard iconographies developed China popular during Ming and Qing dynasties (1368–1911), they wear full armor, each holds exclusive attributes—lute (pipa 琵琶), sword, snake, parasol—from east, south, west, to north respectively. There is no direct textual base Chinese cannon for such iconographies. Neither can we find prototypes India or central Asia. Indeed, how did this iconographic group develop China? past, since Kings clear, identification problem, comprehensive in-depth study on lacking. Actually, those attributes came from a Tantric tradition related Tibetan Buddhism filtered through Xi Xia (1036–1227) Yuan (1206–1368). What revealed development iconography complex relationship Tibetan, Tanguts, Mongols,